Skip to main content
Log in

Gay-Straight Alliances are Associated with Lower Levels of School-Based Victimization of LGBTQ+ Youth: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Gay-straight alliances (GSAs) are school-based organizations for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) youth and their allies that often attempt to improve school climate for sexual and gender minority youth. This meta-analysis evaluates the association between school GSA presence and youth’s self-reports of school-based victimization by quantitatively synthesizing 15 primary studies with 62,923 participants. Findings indicate GSA presence is associated with significantly lower levels of youth’s self-reports of homophobic victimization, fear for safety, and hearing homophobic remarks, and these results are robust, controlling for a variety of study-level factors. The findings of this meta-analysis provide evidence to support GSAs as a means of protecting LGTBQ+ youth from school-based victimization.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

*Denotes study included in meta-analysis

  • Berlan, E. D., Corliss, H. L., Field, A. E., Goodman, E., & Austin, S. B. (2010). Sexual orientation and bullying among adolescents in the growing up today study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 46, 366–371. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.10.015.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bontempo, D. E., & D’Augelli, A. R. (2002). Effects of at-school victimization and sexual orientation on lesbian, gay, or bisexual youths’ health risk behavior. Journal of Adolescent Health, 30, 364–374. doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(01)00415-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cleary, S. D. (2000). Adolescent victimization and associated suicidal and violent behaviors. Adolescence, 35(140), 671–682.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Davis, B., Royne Stafford, M. B., & Pullig, C. (2014). How gay-straight alliance groups mitigate the relationship between gay-bias victimization and adolescent suicide attempts. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 53(12), 1271–1278.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2014.09.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dempsey, C. L. (1994). Health and social issues of gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 75(3), 160–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Espelage, D. L., Aragon, S. R., Birkett, M., & Koenig, B. W. (2008). Homophobic teasing, psychological outcomes, and sexual orientation among high school students: What influence do parents and schools have? School Psychology Review, 37, 202–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, C. J., San Miguel, C., Kilburn, J. C, Jr, & Sanchez, P. (2007). The effectiveness of school-based anti-bullying programs: A meta-analytic review. Criminal Justice Review, 32, 401–414. doi:10.1177/0734016807311712.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fetner, T., & Kush, K. (2008). Gay-straight alliances in high schools: Social predictors of early adoption. Youth and Society, 40, 114–130. doi:10.1177/0044118X07308073.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, M. S., Koeske, G. F., Silvestre, A. J., Korr, W. S., & Sites, E. W. (2006). The impact of gender-role nonconforming behavior, bullying, and suicidality among gay male youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 621–623. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.04.014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gini, G., & Pozzoli, T. (2009). Association between bullying and psychosomatic problems: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 123(3), 1059–1065. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-1215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldbach, J. T., Tanner-Smith, E. E., Bagwell, M., & Dunlap, S. (2014). Minority stress and substance use in sexual minority adolescents: A meta-analysis. Prevention Science, 15, 350–363. doi:10.1007/s11121-013-0393-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Goodenow, C., Szalacha, L., & Westheimer, K. (2006). School support groups, other school factors, and the safety of sexual minority adolescents. Psychology in the Schools, 43(5), 573–589. doi:10.1002/pits.20173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, H. R. (2010). We fight to win: Inequality and the politics of youth activism. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, P., Lee, C., Waugh, J., & Beyer, C. (2004). Describing roles that gay-straight alliances play in schools: From individual support to social change. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Issues in Education, 1, 7–22. doi:10.1300/J367v01n03_03.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanish, L. D., & Guerra, N. G. (2002). A longitudinal analysis of patterns of adjustment following peer victimization. Development and Psychopathology, 14(1), 69–89. doi:10.1017/S0954579402001049.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heck, N. C., Livingston, N. A., Flentje, A., Oost, K., Stewart, B. T., & Cochran, B. N. (2014). Reducing risk for illicit drug use and prescription drug misuse: High school gay-straight alliances and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. Addictive Behaviors, 39(4), 824–828. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.01.007.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Herdt, G., Russell, S. T., Sweat, J., & Marzullo, M. (2007). Sexual inequality, youth empowerment, and the GSA: A community study in California. In N. Teunis & G. Herdt (Eds.), Sexual inequalities (pp. 233–252). Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hasselblad, V., & Hedges, L. V. (1995). Meta-analysis of screening and diagnostic tests. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 167–178. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.167.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hedges, L. V. (1981). Distribution theory for glass’s estimator of effect size and related estimators. Journal of Educational Statistics, 6, 107–128. doi:10.3102/10769986006002107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Jurgensen, E. K. (2013). Examining social support as a factor promoting resiliency against negative outcomes among sexual minority youth. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (3564817).

  • Kann, L., Kinchen, S., Shanklin, S. L., Flint, K. H., Kawkins, J., Harris, W. A.,…, Zaza, S. (2014). Youth risk behavior surveillance—United States, 2013. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, SS-63(4), 1-168.

  • *Kosciw, J. G. (2002). The 2001 National School Climate Survey: The school related experiences of our nation’s lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth. New York: GLSEN.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Kosciw, J. G. (2004). The 2003 National School Climate Survey: The school-related experiences of our nation’s lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth. New York: GLSEN.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Kosciw, J. G., & Diaz, E. M. (2006). The 2005 National School Climate Survey: The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth in our nation’s schools. New York: GLSEN.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Kosciw, J. G., Diaz, E. M., & Greytak, E. A. (2008). 2007 National School Climate Survey: The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth in our nation’s schools. New York: GLSEN.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Kosciw, J. G., Greytak, E. A., Bartkiewicz, M. J., Boesen, M. J., & Palmer, N. A. (2012). The 2011 National School Climate Survey: The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth in our nation’s schools. New York: GLSEN.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Kosciw, J. G., Greytak, E. A., Diaz, E. M., Bartkiewicz, M. J. (2010). The 2009 National School Climate Survey: The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth in our nation’s schools. New York: GLSEN. Related report: Kosciw, J. G., Palmer, N. A., Kull, R. M., Greytak, E. A. (2013). The effect of negative school climate on academic outcomes for LGBT youth and the role of in-school supports. Journal of School Violence, 12(1), 45–63. doi: 10.1080/15388220.2012.732546. Related report: Greytak, E. A., Kosciw, J. G., Boesen, M. J. (2013). Putting the “T” in ‘Resource’: The Benefits of LGBT-Related School Resources for Transgender Youth. Journal of LGBT Youth, 10(1-2), 45–63. doi: 10.1080/19361653.2012.718522.

  • *Kosciw, J. G., Greytak, E. A., Palmer, N. A., & Boesen, M. J. (2014). The 2013 National School Climate Survey: The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth in our nation’s schools. New York: GLSEN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayberry, M. (2006). The story of a Salt Lake city gay-straight alliance: Identity work and LGBT youth. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Issues in Education, 4, 13–31. doi:10.1300/J367v04n01_03.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayberry, M., Chenneville, T., & Currie, S. (2013). Challenging the sounds of silence: A qualitative study of gay-straight alliances and school reform efforts. Education and Urban Society, 45(3), 307–339. doi:10.1177/0013124511409400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayo, C. (2008). Obscene associations: Gay-straight alliances, the equal access act, and abstinence-only policy. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 5, 45–55. doi:10.1525/srsp.2008.5.2.45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayo, J. B, Jr. (2013). Expanding the meaning of social education: What the social studies can learn from gay straight alliances. Theory and Research in Social Education, 41(3), 352–381. doi:10.1080/00933104.2013.815489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merrell, K. W., Gueldner, B. A., Ross, S. W., & Isava, D. M. (2008). How effective are school bullying intervention programs? A meta-analysis of intervention research. School Psychology Quarterly, 23(1), 26–42. doi:10.1037/1045-3830.23.1.26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman D. G., The PRISMA Group. (2009). Preferred reporting Items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. doi:10.1136/bmj.b2535.

  • Nansel, T. R., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R. S., Ruan, W. J., Simons-Morton, B., & Scheidt, P. (2001). Bullying behaviors among US youth: Prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285, 2094–2100. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3401_4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nishina, A., Juvonen, J., & Witkow, M. R. (2005). Sticks and stones may break my bones, but names will make me feel sick: The psychosocial, somatic, and scholastic consequences of peer harassment. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(1), 37–48. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3401_4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patrick, D. L., Bell, J. F., Huang, J. Y., Lazarakis, N. C., & Edwards, T. C. (2013). Bullying and quality of life in youths perceived as gay, lesbian, or bisexual in Washington State, 2010. American Journal of Public Health, 103(7), 1255–1261. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.301101.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Portnoy, G. A. (2012). Perceptions of school climate, psychological sense of community, and gay-straight alliances: A mixed method examination. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (1532601).

  • Poteat, V. P., & Espelage, D. L. (2007). Predicting psychosocial consequences of homophobic victimization in middle school students. Journal of Early Adolescence, 27, 175–191. doi:10.1177/0272431606294839.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poteat, V. P., Scheer, J. R., Marx, R. A., & Calzo, J. P. (2015). Gay-straight alliances vary on dimensions of youth socializing and advocacy: Factors accounting for individual and setting-level differences. American Journal of Community Psychology, 55(3–4), 422–432. doi:10.1007/s10464-015-9722-2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • *Poteat, V. P., Sinclair, K. O., DiGiovanni, C. D., Koenig, B. W., & Russell, S. T. (2012). Gay-straight alliances are associated with student health: A multischool comparison of LGBTQ and heterosexual youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 23(2), 319–330. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2012.00832.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rigby, K., & Slee, P. T. (1999). Suicidal ideation among adolescent school children, involvement in bully- victim problems, and perceived social support. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, 29(2), 119–130.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, S. T., Muraco, A., Subramaniam, A., & Laub, C. (2009). Youth empowerment and high school gay-straight alliances. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 891–903. doi:10.1007/s10964-008-9382-8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, S. T., Ryan, C., Toomey, R. B., Diaz, R. M., & Sanchez, J. (2011). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adolescent school victimization: Implications for young adult health and adjustment. Journal of School Health, 81, 223–230. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2011.00583.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schindel, J. E. (2008). Gender 101—beyond the binary: Gay-straight alliances and gender activism. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 5, 56–70. doi:10.1525/srsp.2008.5.2.56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, S. K., O’Donnell, L., Stueve, A., & Coulter, R. W. S. (2012). Cyberbullying, school bullying, and psychological distress: A regional census of high school students. American Journal of Public Health, 102, 171–177. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300308.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, D., Gorman, A. H., Nakamoto, J., & Toblin, R. L. (2005). Victimization in the peer group and children’s academic functioning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(3), 425–435. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.3.425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Szalacha, L. A. (2001). The sexual diversity climate of Massachusetts’ secondary schools and the success of the safe schools program for gay and lesbian students. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (3012938).

  • Taft, J. (2011). Rebel girls: Youth activism and social change across the Americas. New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Toomey, R. B., McGuire, J. K., Russell, S. T. (2012). Heteronormativity, school climates, and perceived safety for gender nonconforming peers. Journal of Adolescence, 35(1), 187–196. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.03.001. Related report: California Safe Schools Coalition and 4-H Center for Youth Development, University of California, Davis. Consequences of Harassment Based on Actual or Perceived Sexual Orientation and Gender Non-Conformity and Steps for Making Schools Safer. 2004.

  • *Toomey, R. B., & Russell, S. T. (2013). Gay-straight alliances, social justice involvement, and school victimization of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer youth: Implications for school well-being and plans to vote. Youth and Society, 45(4), 500–522. doi: 10.1177/0044118X11422546. Related report: Toomey, R. B. (2011). Extracurricular activity and social justice involvement of sexual minority youth (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (3450770).

  • Toomey, R. B., Ryan, C., Diaz, R. M., Card, N. A., & Russell, S. T. (2010). Gender non-conforming lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: School victimization and young adult psychological adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1580–1589. doi:10.1037/a0020705.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2011). Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 7(1), 27–56. doi:10.1007/s11292-010-9109-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Valenti, M., & Campbell, R. (2009). Working with youth on LGBT issues: Why gay-straight alliance leaders become involved. Journal of Community Psychology, 37, 228–248. doi:10.1002/jcop.20290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Walls, N. E., Kane, S. B., & Wisneski, H. (2010). Gay-straight alliances and school experiences of sexual minority youth. Youth and Society, 41(3), 307–332. doi:10.1177/0044118X09334957.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walls, N. E., Wisneski, H., & Kane, S. (2013). School climate, individual support, or both? Gay-straight alliances and the mental health of sexual minority youth. School Social Work Journal, 37(2), 88–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, L. B., Varjas, K., Meyers, J., & Graybill, E. G. (2010). Gay-straight alliance advisors: Negotiating multiple ecological systems when advocating for LGBTQ youth. Journal of LGBT Youth, 7, 100–128. doi:10.1080/19361651003799700.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, J. S. (2009). No bullies allowed: Understanding peer victimization, the impacts on delinquency, and the effectiveness of prevention programs. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (3351823).

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Emily Tanner-Smith for her valuable input on this project and feedback on an earlier draft of this manuscript. We would also like to thank the editor and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.

Author Contributions

RAM conceived of the study, participated in the design, data collection, and analysis for the study, and drafted the manuscript. HHK conceived of the study, participated in the design and data collection for the study, and drafted the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Robert A. Marx.

Ethics declarations

Conflicts of Interest

The authors report no conflicts of interest.

Funding

The authors declare that they received no funding to support this research.

Ethical Approval

As this research was a quantitative synthesis of publicly available material, ethical approval from the authors’ Institutional Review Board was not required.

Informed Consent

As the research did not involve human participants, the authors could not and did not obtain informed consent.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Marx, R.A., Kettrey, H.H. Gay-Straight Alliances are Associated with Lower Levels of School-Based Victimization of LGBTQ+ Youth: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J Youth Adolescence 45, 1269–1282 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0501-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0501-7

Keywords

Navigation